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Personal Health Budgets

PE R S PE C T IV E

States. Demonstration projects


conducted under Medicaid waivers have permitted self-directed
care for patients with long-term
care needs, improving quality of
life.5 Most such U.S. models,
however, have been limited to the
hiring and supervising of personal assistants for a specified
number of hours per week. Whereas in England direct cash payment
is possible, U.S. officials have been
reluctant to relinquish such control to patients.
Medicaid waivers have been
used to broaden the home- and
community-based services offered,
and some of these services appear similar to those purchased
with personal health budgets in
England. But service specifications and providers are tightly
controlled in these Medicaid initiatives. For example, beneficiaries may be offered set hours for
personal care, home-delivered
meals, and standardized equipment. The English experience suggests that if offered a personal
health budget, some people choose
to focus resources on items such
as custom-designed wheelchairs,
even though they are left with
less money for other services.
Adoption of more ambitious
models that shift public funds to

individual control would probably face political scrutiny in the


United States, as it has in England.
Yet the emergence of capitated
health plans as nongovernmental
intermediaries managing the finances and care of Medicaid and
dually eligible (Medicare and Medicaid) beneficiaries may facilitate
this approach, since such plans
spending patterns may draw less
public attention than those of
government agencies.
Under the Affordable Care Act,
13 states are conducting demonstration projects in which health
plans are responsible for managing overall expenditures for dually eligible patients. These plans
can offer flexible benefits outside traditional health care and
are providing some such as home
modifications, appliances, and cell
phones as part of a case-management approach for populations
with complex needs. These plans
could provide even greater flexibility and patient control. Plans
could use service history to assess
a patients expenses for homeand community-based services and
then allow the patient to work
with a case manager to develop a
budget addressing personal needs
and health goals.
As the U.S. system strives to

redesign care for high-cost patients, we believe that greater consideration should be given to selfdirected care, informed by lessons
from international models. The
evidence from England suggests
that patients themselves can help
to design higher-value care.
The views expressed in this article are
those of the authors and do not necessarily
represent those of AHRQ or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Disclosure forms provided by the authors
are available at NEJM.org.
From the University of California, San Francisco (L.O., A.B.B.); and the Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ),
Rockville, MD (A.B.B.).
1. NHS England. The forward view into
action: new care models: update and initial
support. 2015 (https://www.england.nhs.uk/
wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ncm-support
-package.pdf).
2. Forder J, Jones K, Glendinning C, et al.
Evaluation of the personal health budget
pilot programme. Canterbury, Kent, United
Kingdom:PSSRU University of Kent, 2012
(https://w ww.phbe.org.uk/index-phbe.php).
3. Jones K, Forder J, Caiels J, Welch E,
Glendinning C, Windle K. Personalization in
the health care system: do personal health
budgets have an impact on outcomes and cost?
J Health Serv Res Policy 2013;18:Supp:59-67.
4. BBC News. NHS personal health budgets
spent on holidays and horse riding. September 1, 2015 (http://www.bbc.com/news/health
-34110964).
5. Carlson BL, Foster L, Dale SB, Brown R.
Effects of cash and counseling on personal
care and well-being.Health Serv Res2007;
42:467-87.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp1606040
Copyright 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society.
Personal Health Budgets

Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?

Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?


JoAnnE. Manson, M.D., Dr.P.H., PatsyM. Brannon, Ph.D., R.D., CliffordJ. Rosen, M.D., and ChristineL. Taylor, Ph.D.

n recent years, numerous clinical research articles have concluded that large proportions of
North American and global populations are deficient in vitamin D.1-3 Most of the evidence
cited focuses on one of two observations: that many people
have serum concentrations of vitamin D (i.e., 25-hydroxyvitamin D

[25(OH)D]) below 20 ng per milli


liter (50 nmol per liter), which the
Institute of Medicine (IOM) estimated in 2011 was the appropriate level4; or that supplementation
with 600 to 800 IU per day the
IOM Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults or more
fails to achieve serum concentrations above 20 ng per milliliter

in some study participants. Such


conclusions, however, are based on
misinterpretation and misapplication of the IOM reference values
for vitamin D. Because such misunderstandings can have adverse
implications for patient care, including unnecessary vitamin D
screening and supplementation as
well as escalating health care costs

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Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?

PERS PE C T IV E

due to overscreening and overtreatment, its important to clarify the meaning of IOM reference
values for vitamin D as they relate
to both population health and
clinical practice.
To understand the concept of
nutrient deficiency or inadequacy, one needs to know how
the IOM nutrient reference values
are defined and what they reflect.
The IOM develops these reference
values, referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), for an array of nutrients. Central to the
DRI concept is the biologic reality
that the need for any nutrient
varies from person to person,
generally in a normal distribution
across the population. These reference values include an Estimated
Average Requirement (EAR) for
the nutrient, which is the median
of the distribution of human requirements.4 The EAR reflects the
most likely requirement for the
population, whereas a second DRI
reference value, the RDA, reflects
the estimated requirement for people at the highest end of the distribution. Practically everyone in
the population (at least 97.5%, or
within 2 SD of the median) will
have a requirement below the RDA.
Because of vitamin Ds established role in bone health (postulated nonskeletal benefits remain
under study), the EAR is set at
400 IU per day for persons 1 to
70 years of age and 600 IU per
day for persons older than 70
intakes corresponding to a serum
25(OH)D level of 16 ng per milliliter (40 nmol per liter). The RDAs
are 600 IU per day and 800 IU
per day, respectively, corresponding to a serum 25(OH)D level of
20 ng per milliliter (50 nmol per
liter). Note that the EAR and
RDA assume minimal to no sun
exposure. Although obesity and
overweight are associated with
lower circulating concentrations
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of 25(OH)D, evidence on the relationship with bone health and any


implications for modified dietary
intake requirements for people
with greater adiposity remain inconclusive.4 The graph in Panel A
illustrates the reference-value distribution for intakes related to
the DRI-linked serum 25(OH)D
levels as established by the IOM.
A common misconception is
that the RDA functions as a cut
point and that nearly the entire
population must have a serum
25(OH)D level above 20 ng per
milliliter to achieve good bone
health. The reality is that the
majority (about 97.5%) of the
population has a requirement of
20 ng per milliliter or less. Moreover, by definition of an average
requirement, approximately half
the population has a requirement
of 16 ng per milliliter (the EAR) or
less. These concepts are depicted
in the population reference-value
distribution shown in Panel A,
which highlights the relationship
between the EAR and the RDA.
In creating its framework for
reference values, the IOM anticipated the inherent variability in
nutrient requirements and therefore established and verified by
statistical modeling4 the goal
of achieving population levels
above the EAR, not the RDA.
However, the literature is replete
with misapplications of the RDA
that treat it as a cut point. Many
studies establish inadequacy using the RDA, though it is actually at the upper end of the spectrum of human need. Clearly, this
approach misclassifies as deficient most people whose nutrient requirements are being met
thereby creating the appearance of a pandemic of deficiency.
Applying the correct method
to data from the National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) for 2007 through 2010

reveals that 13% of Americans 1 to


70 years of age are at risk for
vitamin D inadequacy. Less than
6% are deficient in vitamin D
[serum 25(OH)D levels <12.5 ng
4
]. The utility of
per milliliter
measurement of parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations for
identifying the optimal level of
vitamin D remains controversial;
the relationship between serum
25(OH)D and PTH is inconsistent,
and no clear threshold defining
sufficiency has been established.4
Vitamin D is a nutrient of concern, but these levels of deficiency
do not constitute a pandemic.
Furthermore, using the RDAassociated serum concentrations
of vitamin D to judge whether
population groups have inadequate levels or to set intake goals
for populations inflates the estimated prevalence of inadequacy
and overestimates the needed intake. Indeed, ensuring that 97.5%
of the population attains or exceeds vitamin D levels of 20 ng
per milliliter would require shifting the entire population to a higher intake (see graph in Panel B).
This misapplication of RDA-associated concentrations could cause
harm to people whose intake is
pushed above the Tolerable Upper
Intake Level (UL, the level at which
there may be adverse effects),
which the IOM has established
as 4000 IU daily with a resulting
serum 25(OH)D concentration of
approximately 50 ng per milliliter
(125 nmol per liter). A modeling
study by Taylor et al. suggested
that shifting the distribution of
serum 25(OH)D concentrations
in adults 19 to 70 years of age
upward so that the RDA-associated concentration of 20 ng per
milliliter was achieved in nearly
everyone (all but 2.5% of the
population) would mean that levels in some people would exceed
the UL.5

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The New England Journal of Medicine


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Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?

PE R S PE C T IV E

A RDA Correctly Applied


Intake
to meet
RDA-linked
serum
25(OH)D

Frequency of Requirement

Intake
to meet
average
requirement

Upper level
of intake

50%

97.5%

Intake of Vitamin D

Frequency of Requirement

B RDA Misapplied
Intake
to meet
RDA-linked
serum
25(OH)D

Upper level
of intake
Projected intake
needed to attain or
exceed RDA-linked
serum 25(OH)D
in 97.5% of
population

Shift needed to attain


or exceed RDA-linked
serum 25(OH)D in
97.5% of population

Intake of Vitamin D

Distribution of Vitamin D Intake Requirements in a Healthy Population (Panel A) and the Upward
Shift in Distribution Required to Attain the RDA-Linked Serum 25(OH)D Concentration in 97.5%
of the Population (Panel B).
Correctly understood, the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is the intake that meets the needs
of 50% of the population, and the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the intake that meets
the needs of 97.5% of the population (Panel A). If, instead, we strive to ensure that the RDA-linked
serum 25(OH)D concentration is attained or exceeded in 97.5% of the population, some people
will exceed the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (Panel B).

This problem highlights the


concern that universal screening
based on inappropriate cut points
might lead to routine supplementation in generally healthy populations with adequate vitamin D
levels. A preferable option would
be to encourage patients and the
public to choose foods containing, or fortified with, vitamin D
an approach that will be facilitated by new regulations requiring that vitamin D content be
listed on nutrition labels.
Although our focus here is pro-

viding clarity about the use of


nutrient reference values for estimating the prevalence of inadequacy in population groups, these
values are also relevant to clinical settings in which patients are
counseled individually. The two
key clinical questions are whether to screen for vitamin D deficiency and what vitamin D intake
to recommend for individual patients. For optimal decision making, the central issue is whether
the patient is generally healthy
and free of major risk factors for

n engl j med 375;19

nejm.org

vitamin D deficiency or whether


he or she has a skeletal disorder
or significant risk factors for vitamin D deficiency (such as osteoporosis, osteomalacia, malabsorption, use of medications [such as
anticonvulsants] that can affect
vitamin D metabolism, or institutionalization).4 For healthy patients, routine screening is not
recommended by most medical
organizations, and the pitfalls
would be similar to those described above for population-based
studies.
Although the average requirement can be used to estimate the
probability that a patients 25(OH)D
level reflects an inadequate intake, practical counseling on vitamin D intake for healthy patients
would use the RDA intake as a
guidepost, given that it is impossible to know a given patients
actual requirement and the RDA
will nearly always meet the needs
of generally healthy people. For
patients who are at high risk or
who have a disorder related to
calcium metabolism, targeted vitamin D assessment would be appropriate, and vitamin D supplementation at levels above the RDA
may be necessary. Although clinical judgment and customized
interventions can be used with
individual patients, avoidance of
overscreening and overprescribing
of supplemental vitamin D remains important.
Drs. Manson, Brannon, and Rosen report
being members of the Institute of Medicine
Committee on Dietary Reference Intakes
for Vitamin D and Calcium, 20092011; Dr.
Taylor reports serving as IOM study director for the committee.
Disclosure forms provided by the authors
are available at NEJM.org.
From the Department of Medicine, Brigham
and Womens Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (J.E.M.); the Division of
Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY (P.M.B.); the Center for Clinical
and Translational Medicine, Maine Medical
Center Research Institute, Scarborough
(C.J.R.); and the Office of Dietary Supple-

November 10, 2016

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Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?

PERS PE C T IV E
ments, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, MD (C.L.T.).
1. Cashman KD, Dowling KG, krabkov Z,
et al. Vitamin D deficiency in Europe: pandemic? Am J Clin Nutr 2016;103:1033-44.
2. Akkermans MD, van der Horst-Graat JM,
Eussen SR, van Goudoever JB, Brus F. Iron
and vitamin D deficiency in healthy young

children in western Europe despite current


nutritional recommendations. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016;62:635-42.
3. Ng K, Scott JB, Drake BF, et al. Dose response to vitamin D supplementation in African Americans: results of a 4-arm, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr
2014;99:587-98.
4. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference

intakes: calcium and vitamin D. Washington, DC:National Academies Press, 2011.


5. Taylor CL, Bailey RL, Carriquiry AL. Use
of folate-based and other fortification scenarios illustrates different shifts for tails of the
distribution of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D
concentrations. J Nutr 2015;145:1623-9.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMp1608005
Copyright 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society.
Vitamin D Deficiency Is There Really a Pandemic?

Embodying the Three Rs in Fiji

Embodying the Three Rs in Fiji


Anne Creaton, M.B.Ch.B.

ing! Another e-mail pops up,


seeking my attention. Im
writing to enquire about trainee
positions in Fiji. Familiar mixed
emotions wash over me. Id worked
hard to get the Fiji emergency
medicine training rotation accredited by the Australasian College
for Emergency Medicine. Id spoken at conferences and written
articles to attract applicants. Having staff from emergency care
systems in high-income countries
working alongside local staff
brought new skills to the team,
built understanding and mutual
respect, and added credibility to
the program. So why this ambivalence?
Was it the effort of managing
the expectations of people used to
having everything at their fingertips? Of challenging their ideas of
giving back and making a difference? Or of trying but failing
to impress on them that 3 months
in a country would open their
eyes but accomplish little more?
There was no shortage of local,
smart, motivated young doctors
but there was so little I could
do about the daily frustrations
with bureaucracy and dysfunctional systems that prevented them
from fulfilling their potential and
caused many to seek employment
opportunities elsewhere.

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By introducing trainees from


the promised land, would I risk
accelerating the brain drain and
training doctors for export? Our
first cohort of Fiji-trained, masters
level emergency specialists will
graduate at the end of the year
and will face enormous challenges in establishing the specialty in
their home country. Fijian doctors can be found worldwide, but
particularly in Australia and New
Zealand, where they are attracted
by better pay and conditions and
where resources are plentiful.1
It is important to appropriately
select and prepare visiting staff.
Lack of cultural sensitivity and
inappropriate ambitions and behaviors on the part of physicians
trained elsewhere can cause substantial harm to patients, local
staff, departments, and training
programs. A new environment requires a significant period of adjustment and calibration. The first
month should be spent watching
and learning the demographics,
epidemiology, illness behaviors,
and the way things are done
around here. Clinicians trained
in countries with well-developed
health systems often have little
insight into how those systems
facilitate their own clinical performance and protect their welfare.
Actions taken without such in-

sight can undermine patients


respect for local doctors by re
inforcing the common notion that
Western physicians are superior.2
If youre a trainee seeking an
exotic medical adventure here, you
need to consider the kinds of
cases you may encounter and
the qualities you will need in order to handle them well. Say you
respond to a request to provide
medical assistance: a truck illegally transporting cyanide has run
off an embankment and is resting next to a river upstream of
several villages. Its dark out.
There is no HAZMAT expertise,
no standard operating procedure.
No personal protective equipment
is provided. Bystanders mingle
with fire service personnel, taking
photos with their mobile phones.
There is no designated hot zone
and no cyanide antidote.
Or a 30-year-old man presents
to the emergency department with
chest pain. You diagnose an inferior ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. He is given aspirin streptokinase has been out
of stock for 3 months now, and
other thrombolytics have been
deemed unaffordable for the public system. He develops complete
heart block and cardiogenic shock,
which dont respond to an adrenaline infusion. Central catheters

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